Daily Current Affairs – 1 October 2025

Daily Current Affairs –1 October 2025 : A Comprehensive Overview

 

E-Waste Recycling

While the Union government promotes local electronics manufacturing through initiatives like semiconductor fabs and the Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme, e-waste recycling remains a weak link.

Millions of tonnes of discarded consumer electronics and appliances have piled up in recent years. Policymakers see recycling as crucial to extract scarce and valuable metals, especially as electronics consumption is projected to surge in the coming years.

E-Waste –

• E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, TVs, fridges, and chargers.
• While these often contain valuable materials, they are usually dumped instead of being reused or recycled.

•     Need for effective e-waste management —

• Health Risks – E-waste contains toxic substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium. Improper handling leads to contamination of soil and water, causing neurological disorders, kidney failure, and long-term chronic diseases.
• Environmental Damage – Hazardous recycling practices pollute air, soil, and water. They also release greenhouse gases, worsening climate change and harming ecosystems.
• Economic Loss – Inefficient recycling causes wastage of valuable resources such as gold, silver, and copper, which could otherwise be recovered and reused in production.

•     Link with Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) and SDGs —

• E-waste management aligns with global sustainability frameworks:
  • SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production.
  • SDG 13: Climate Action.
• It strengthens India’s ESG commitments by integrating resource efficiency and environmental protection into growth.

Electronics Consumption and Indigenous Push –

• India, despite having over 93.9 crore mobile broadband connections, accounts for only 4% of global electronics consumption.
• Fragile global supply chains have pushed the government to expand domestic manufacturing and raw material access, including a ₹1,500 crore mineral recycling scheme announced in September.

E-Waste Volumes and Processing –

• According to the Global E-Waste Monitor 2020, India is the world’s third-largest e-waste generator after China and the USA.
  • With India being one of the fastest-growing electronics markets, this trend is expected to rise further.
  • As per one report, India’s electronics industry to grow at a CAGR of 6%, from USD 215 billion in FY19 to USD 540 billion by FY25.
  • This rapid expansion will add significantly to e-waste volumes.
• India generated an estimated 17 million metric tonnes of e-waste in 2022, but only one-third was processed through proper channels.

•     Legal Framework for E-Waste Management —

• Improper disposal of end-of-life EEE products has severe negative externalities, including risks to human health and environmental Effective management is essential to mitigate these harms.
• E-waste in India is regulated by the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). These rules came into force on April 1, 2023.
• State Pollution Control Boards, responsible for inventorying, use inconsistent methods, causing discrepancies between Indian and international data.
• The Central Pollution Control Board has begun auditing recyclers, with over 50 firms checked in recent months.
• Companies are working to aggregate informal operations into formal “mandi”-style streams, recovering metals such as gold, copper, aluminium, and steel.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework and Associated Concerns –

• The government has introduced EPR rules requiring manufacturers to collect end-of-life appliances for recycling metals like copper, aluminium, nickel, cobalt, and lithium.
• This move is partly driven by geopolitical risks, such as China’s export restrictions on rare earth elements.

•     Dominance of Informal Sector —

• A 2023 Indian Cellular and Electronics Association report flagged the dominance of the informal sector in India’s recycling ecosystem.
• These operators focus on repairing and harvesting components, but remain outside formal frameworks, hindering the creation of a circular economy.
• Even within EPR, issues like “paper trading” persist, with recyclers overstating volumes for financial incentives.

•     Concerns on Traceability and Best Practices —

• Experts stress that malpractices plague the sector, with many players lacking true metal extraction capacity.
• They highlighted the need for third-party audits, better environmental safeguards, and life-cycle visibility of products.
• Inventorying remains weak in India, unlike Western countries that count products as potential e-waste from the point of sale.

Future Potential –

• While the share of recycled precious metals in India’s supply chains remains negligible, industry leaders argue that with the right policy push, India could meet up to 70% of its rare earth requirements within 18 months.
• Recycling’s impact is growing each year, highlighting its potential as a key pillar in India’s electronics ecosystem.

Deep-Sea Mineral Exploration

India has signed a new contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) granting exclusive rights to explore Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS) in the Carlsberg Ridge of the Indian Ocean. With this, India has become the first country in the world to hold two such ISA contracts, commanding the largest seabed area allocated internationally for PMS exploration. The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, will begin exploration in 2026 through geophysical and hydrographic surveys. India’s application, submitted in 2024, was approved last week, allotting a 10,000 sq km area in the Carlsberg Ridge. This builds on its earlier 2016 contract for exploration in the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges, marking both a scientific breakthrough and a strategic advantage.

Polymetallic Sulphides and Their Importance for India –

• PMS are rich seabed deposits containing copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, and trace amounts of rare and precious elements.
• Found near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, these deposits form when seawater seeps into cracks, interacts with magma beneath the Earth’s crust, and resurfaces as mineral-rich hot water that solidifies on the seabed.
• For India, PMS exploration is vital as land-based reserves of such minerals are limited.
• Securing these resources is crucial for strategic industries, renewable energy systems, high- technology applications, and green technologies, thereby enhancing the country’s resource security and self-reliance.

India’s Experience in PMS Exploration –

• Since signing its first PMS exploration contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in 2016, India’s National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) has carried out extensive surveys in the central and southwest Indian Ocean ridges, building significant expertise and infrastructure.
• The government’s Deep Ocean Mission has strengthened these efforts by adding deep-sea vessels, advanced tools like Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs).
• The upcoming Matsya submersible under the Samudrayaan mission, which will further expand exploration capacity.
• NCPOR follows a three-phase plan —
  • Reconnaissance surveys with ship-based tools to locate potential PMS sites.
  • Near-seabed surveys using AUVs and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) to confirm deposits.
  • Resource evaluation of identified PMS areas for assessing their economic potential.

Significance of the Carlsberg Ridge –

• The Carlsberg Ridge, part of the mid-ocean ridge system in the Indian Ocean, was formed by seafloor spreading between the Indian Plate and Somali Plate about 40 million years ago.
• With a slow spreading rate of 4–3.3 cm per year, it features rugged flanking topography and a median valley typical of slow-spreading ridges.
• The ridge hosts hydrothermal vent systems, making it a potential hotspot for Polymetallic Sulphide (PMS) deposits.India has been studying these systems for over three decades.
• Its proximity — located near 2°N latitude, much closer to India than the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges at 26°S — makes it highly significant for resource security and scientific exploration.

How PMS Exploration Differs from Other Underwater Mineral Searches?

• PMS exploration is far more complex than other seabed mineral investigations.
• PMS deposits occur near hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges, at depths of 2,000– 5,000 metres, where the terrain is rocky, uneven, and remote.
• Survey operations require deep-sea vessels with dynamic positioning, precise navigation, and advanced communication systems.
• Unlike other explorations, PMS demands a multidisciplinary team of marine geologists, geophysicists, oceanographers, biologists, and deep-sea technologists.
• Exploration methods involve ship-mounted geophysical surveys for reconnaissance, and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) for detailed near-seabed mapping and sample collection.
• Advanced tools are essential to accurately analyse mineral composition, making PMS exploration one of the most technically demanding deep-sea missions.

How ISA Allocates Mineral Exploration Sites?

• The International Seabed Authority (ISA), established under the UNCLOS framework, manages mineral exploration in international waters.
• Countries, through their governments, public sector bodies, or sponsored entities, apply to the ISA for exploration rights.
• Applications must include details of the proposed area, a work plan, environmental baseline studies, and proof of technical and financial capacity.
• The ISA’s Legal and Technical Commission (LTC) reviews these submissions for compliance.
• If approved, the application is forwarded to the ISA Council for final clearance, granting the applicant exclusive exploration rights in the designated seabed area.

India’s Plans for Additional Mineral Exploration in the Indian Ocean –

• As part of its Blue Economy initiatives, India is pursuing more seabed mineral exploration rights in the Indian Ocean.
• Beyond its existing contracts for Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS), India has applied to the ISA for rights to explore cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount in the Central Indian This application is currently under review.
• Securing such rights would further strengthen India’s access to strategic and critical minerals vital for technology, renewable energy, and long-term resource security.

Crime in India 2023

The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has released its Crime in India 2023 report (after a two-year gap), highlighting a significant increase in cybercrime cases. The data reflects growing vulnerabilities in India’s digital ecosystem, with fraud, extortion, and sexual exploitation emerging as dominant motives behind such crimes.

Key Findings of the Report –

•     Overall crime statistics —

• The data reflects a 7.2% overall increase in recorded crimes, reaching 6.24 million cases (crimes every five seconds on average in 2023).
• Traditional violent crimes such as murder (↓8%) and rape (↓5.9%) have declined.
• But cybercrime, economic offences, and miscellaneous crimes like obstruction on public way (Sec.283 IPC – ↑62%) and Motor Vehicle Act violations (↑103%) have surged.

•     Offences against vulnerable sections —

• Crime against women: Marginal rise of 7% (448,211 cases).
• Crimes against SCs: ↑4% (57,789 cases).
• Crimesagainst children: ↑2%.
• Crimesagainst STs: ↑8%.

Cybercrime Trends –

• Rising — Cybercrime cases rose 31.2% in 2023, reaching 86,420 cases compared to 65,893 in 2022. The cybercrime rate increased from 4.8% in 2022 to 6.2% in 2023.

•     Consistent rise since 2018 —

• 2018 – 27,248 cases
• 2019 – 44,735 cases
• 2020 – 50,035 cases
• 2021 – 52,974 cases
• 2022 – 65,893 cases
• 2023 – 86,420 cases

•     Motives behind cybercrimes —

• Fraud: 9% of total cases (59,526 cases) – the largest category.
• Sexual exploitation: 9% (4,199 cases).
• Extortion: 8% (3,326 cases).

State-Wise Data on Cybercrime –

• Karnataka: Highest with 21,889 cases in 2023 (sharp rise from 8,136 in 2021 and 12,556 in 2022). Included 18,166 cases of cheating by personation and 1,007 obscene video transfers.
• Telangana: 18,236 cases in 2023 (up from 15,297 in 2022).
• Uttar Pradesh: 10,794 cases in 2023 (up from 10,117 in 2022).

Economic Offences (Broader Category) –

• Total cases in 2023 — 2,04,973 (6% increase from 1,93,385 in 2022).

•     Categories —

• Forgery,cheating and fraud (FCF) – 1,81,553 cases.
• Criminal breach of trust – 22,759 cases.
• Counterfeiting – 661 cases.

Analysis and Implications –

• Crime patterns shifting — From traditional violent crimes to economic and technology-driven crimes.
• Shift in crime categorisation and tracking — It is the last annual report under the IPC, as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) came into force in July 2024.
• Digital fraud — It is the biggest challenge in India’s cybercrime landscape. The concentration of cases in Karnataka, Telangana, and UP suggests urbanisation, IT penetration, and digital adoption are key drivers.
• Economic offences’ steady rise — Highlights the need for robust financial cybersecurity mechanisms.

Way Ahead –

• Strengthening cybersecurity infrastructure and digital literacy programs are crucial.
• Equipping law enforcement agencies: With advanced cyber forensic tools and training.
• Enhanced public-private collaboration: In monitoring, prevention, and quick response mechanics.
• Multi-stakeholder approach: Covering government, judiciary, tech companies, and citizens— can mitigate risks and build a resilient digital ecosystem.

Swachh Shehar Jodi Initiative

Recently, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has launched the Swachh Shehar Jodi (SSJ) initiative.

About Swachh Shehar Jodi Initiative –

• It is a structured mentorship and collaborative action program involving 72 mentor cities
• and around 200 mentee cities.
• Based on their recent performance in the Swachh Survekshan rankings, top-performing cities have been identified as mentor cities and paired with low-performing mentee cities. It is implemented under the Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban (SBM-U).
• It is aimed to foster knowledge and experience sharing, peer learning and transforming best practices in sanitation and waste management across urban India.

•     Objectives of Swachh Shehar Jodi Initiative —

• The objective is to support comparatively low performing cities in improving their
• swachhata performance by drawing on the experience of mentor cities to:
• Replicate tested best practices in sanitation and waste management

• It is envisioned that the mentor cities will be those cities that adhere to the following criteria —
  • Top performing cities that have featured across Rank 1, 2 or 3 in Swachh Survekshan (SS) 2022, 2023, and 2024 ( i.e. – cities that are part of the Super Swachh League)
  • Topthree cities that are featured across population categories in SS 2024.
  • Promising clean cities that emerge across States/UTs as part of SS 2024.
• The mentee city may be selected on the basis of the following criteria:
  • Featured in the bottom of the State cumulative ranking of the latest SS rankings.
  • Geographical proximity of the jodi cities to each other .
• Funding: Both mentor and mentee cities may utilise the Capacity Building (CB) Funds allocated to each State/UT as part of SBM-U 2.0.
• State/UT Governments are encouraged to top up this fund, if required.
• Cities can also leverage funds from other sources / partner organizations.

Preponderance of Probability

The judgment on the title battle over the 1,500 square yards in the town of Ayodhya is founded on the “test of preponderance of probabilities” over who had possession of the outer and inner courtyards of the disputed premises, according to former Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud.

About Preponderance of Probability –

• It is a widely accepted standard of proof in civil proceedings.
• The preponderance of probability refers to the greater likelihood of one event or fact over another.
• In this context, a fact is considered proven when the evidence suggests that the occurrence of the fact is more likely than not.
• It is not about certainty or eliminating all doubts but rather about weighing evidence to see which side presents a more probable scenario.
• In civil cases, the party bearing the burden of proof needs to show that their version of events is more plausible than the opposing parties.
• This standard contrasts sharply with the criminal law standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt,” where the prosecution must prove the defendant’s guilt to a much higher level of certainity.
•  In civil cases, by contrast, the balance of probabilities leans toward the more convincing narrative.
• In Narayan Ganesh Dastane v. Sucheta Narayan Dastane (1975), the Supreme Court of India stated that under Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act, a fact is said to be proved when the court believes in its existence based on a “preponderance of probability.”
• The court applies this test by evaluating conflicting probabilities and choosing the most probable Application of Preponderance of Probability in Civil Law —
  • The preponderance of probability is the standard of proof used in most civil
  • Civil cases typically involve disputes over rights, contracts, property, or torts, and the plaintiff must demonstrate that their claim is more likely true than false.
  • For example, in a breach of contract case, the plaintiff must show that it is more likely than not that the contract was breached.

National Crime Records Bureau

According to the latest data released by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), crimes against Scheduled Tribes (STs) increased 28.8 per cent in 2023 as compared to the previous year.

About National Crime Records Bureau –

• It was established in 1986 to act as a repository of information on crime and criminals.
• It was set up based on the recommendations of the Tandon Committee, the National Police Commission (1977-1981) and the Task Force of the Home Ministry.
• Nodal Ministry — It comes under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India.
• Headquarters — New Delhi

•     Functions of National Crime Records Bureau —

• It is responsible for collecting and analysing crime data as well as serving as a repository of such information to aid investigators in tracing crimes and criminals.
• It is entrusted with the responsibility of monitoring, coordination, and implementing the Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and System (CCTNS) project.
• Under the National Digital Police Portal police officers look for a criminal or suspect on the CCTNS database and gives citizens with services such as online complaint filing, etc.
• The Bureau has also been entrusted to maintain the National Database of Sexual Offenders (NDSO) and share it with the States/UTs on a regular basis.
• NCRB has also been designated as the Central Nodal Agency to manage the technical and operational functions of the ‘Online Cyber-Crime Reporting Portal’ through which any citizen can lodge a complaint or upload a video clip as evidence of crime related to child pornography, rape/gang rape.
• The NCRB has also launched CyTrain, a portal for online training of different stakeholders in cybercrime investigations and prosecution.
• The Central Finger Print Bureau under the NCRB is a national repository of all fingerprints in the country.
• NCRB also compiles and publishes National Crime Statistics i.e. Crime in India, Accidental Deaths & Suicides, and also Prison Statistics.

Gulf of Aden

A suspected missile strike, likely from Yemen’s Houthi rebels, caused a vessel to catch fire in the Gulf of Aden recently.

About Gulf of Aden –

• It is an extension of the Indian Ocean, located between the Arabian Peninsula and the African continent.
• The gulf connects the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea via the Strait of Bab el Mandeb.
• The gulf is named after “Aden,” a port city on Yemen’s coast.
• It is one of the largest natural harbors in the world, with an area of about 70 sq. km of sheltered water.
• It is approximately 900 km long and 500 km wide and covers roughly 410,000 km.
• It is bounded to the south by Somalia and the Socotra Islands (part of Yemen), north by Yemen, east by the Arabian Sea, and west by Djibouti.
• The gulf is connected to the Somali Sea to the south by the Guardafui Channel.
• In the west, it narrows into the Gulf of Tadjoura,near Djibouti.
• It is demarcated from the Arabian Sea by the Horn of Africa and the Socotra Islands.
• The Gulf of Aden is strongly influenced by the upwelling of cool, nutrient-rich waters during the southwest and northeast monsoons and is characterised by a prevailing high-energy climate.
• Major Ports: Aden in Yemen, and Berbera and Bosaso in Somalia.
•  It is also a critical part of the Suez Canal shipping route, which connects the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
• An estimated 11% of seaborne petroleum passes through the Gulf of Aden en route to the Mediterranean or Arabian Seas.

Red Sanders

Recently, the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has sanctioned an amount of ₹82 lakh to the Andhra Pradesh Biodiversity Board for the conservation of the endemic plant species Red Sanders (Pterocarpussantalinus).

About Red Sanders –

• It is native to the Southern Eastern Ghats and found particularly in the districts of Anantapur, Chittoor, Kadapa, and Kurnool of Andhra Pradesh.
• Required Climatic Conditions — It usually grows in rocky, degraded and fallow lands with Red Soil and a hot and dry climate.
• Threats — It has been under heavy threat due to its high commercial value, leading to rampant smuggling.

•     Conservation Status —

• IUCN: Endangered
• CITES: Appendix II
• The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule IV

Key facts about National Biodiversity Authority –

• It is a statutory body established under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• It was formally set up in 2003.

•     Composition of National Biodiversity Authority —

• Chairperson: An eminent person with proven knowledge and experience in biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of biological resources, and equitable sharing of benefits.
• 10 Ex-officio Members: Senior representatives from the Government of India, nominated to provide policy insights and ensure inter-ministerial coordination.
• 5 Non-Official Members: Experts and professionals from diverse fields related to biodiversity management, nominated to contribute independent perspectives and specialised expertise.
• To ensure effective implementation of the Act at different administrative levels, two additional entities were created alongside the NBA:
  • State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs): Functioning at the state level to regulate access to biological resources within their jurisdiction.
  • Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs): Established at the local village or panchayat level to promote grassroots-level biodiversity conservation and documentation.
• Headquarters: Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis

Recently, Indian Immunologicals (IIL) has launched India’s first indigenously developed glycoprotein E (gE) deleted DIVA marker vaccine against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR).

About Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis –

• It is endemic in India and caused by Bovine Herpes Virus (BHV-1).
  • BoHV-1 is a member of the genus Varicellovirus in the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae.
• It is a disease of domestic and wild cattle.
• There are three forms — respiratory, genital and encephalitic, the first two are more common.
• Transmission — The disease is transmitted through the aerosol route and affects reproductive systems. It is also transmitted by semen from bulls to milch animals.

•     Symptoms of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis —

• It is characterised by clinical signs of the upper respiratory tract, such as a (muco)purulent nasal discharge, hyperaemia of the muzzle (red nose disease) and by conjunctivitis.
• Signs of general illness are fever, depression, inappetence, abortions and reduced milk yield.
• Impacts on Bovines — Infertility, abortions and lower milk productivity are some of the major impacts of the disease.
• Treatment — There is no vaccine available in India and there is no specific treatment against this disease thus far.

Ophiorrhiza echinata

A new coffee plant species named Ophiorrhiza echinata was recently found in the Western Ghats.

About Ophiorrhiza echinata –

• It is a new species of coffee.
• It was discovered in the highly biodiversity-rich shola forests of the Western Ghats at Devikulam in the Idukki District of Kerala.
• It grows in the ecotone region between evergreen forest and grassland vegetation at an elevation of 1,630 m above sea level and may have medicinal potential.
• It belongs to the family Rubiaceae and is closely related to the genus Ophiorrhiza mungos, which is a key ingredient in cancer treatment and antidote preparations.
• Ophiorrhiza echinata has so far only been collected from the type locality.
• The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than four square kilometres, and the known populations contain a maximum of only 35 plants.

Pallid Fish Eagle

Recently, a survey conducted jointly by the State Forest Department and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has revealed rare nesting of Pallid Fish Eagle in Corbett Tiger Reserve.

About Pallid Fish Eagle –

• It is also known as Pallas’s sea eagle or band-tailed fish eagle, is a large, brownish sea eagle.
• Habitat — It can be seen near lakes, marshes and large rivers, from lowlands to 5,000 metres of elevation.
• Food — It feeds primarily on fish, but many other prey are part of its diet.
• It breeds usually near water in a large nest placed in a tall tree.
• It is partially migratory, with Central Asian birds wintering among the southern Asian birds in northern India, and also further west to the Persian Gulf.
• Distribution — It is found in the east Palearctic in Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
• Conservation status — IUCN Red List: Endangered
• Threats — Humans contribute to the decline of this species through habitat degradation, pollution, and draining or overfishing lakes.

Key Facts about Corbett Tiger Reserve –

• It is located on the foothills of the Himalayas in Uttrakhand.
• It was originally established as Hailey National Park in 1936.
• It is not only the first national park in India, but also the first to come under the Project Tiger Initiative.
• Terrain — The terrain is undulating with several The rivers Ramganga, Pallaen, and Sonanadi flow through the valleys.
• It is spread over the Bhabar and lower Shivalik regions with a deep-water tables.
• Vegetation — North Indian tropical moist deciduous forests and tropical dry deciduous forests. In general, the vegetation comprises sal and mixed forests, interspersed with grass lands and riparian vegetation.

Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai (HTHH) Volcano

A collaborative research team recently returned from a major 54-day voyage on CSIRO research vessel (RV) Investigator to explore the impacts of the devastating 2022 eruption of Tonga’s underwater Hunga Volcano.

About Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai (HTHH) Volcano –

• It is a submarine stratovolcano in the Tongan archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean.
• The HTHH volcano includes the small islands of Hunga Tonga and Hunga Ha’apai, along with shallow reefs along the caldera rim of a much larger submarine edifice in the western South Pacific Ocean, west of the main inhabited islands in the Kingdom of Tonga.
• The volcano is part of the highly active Tonga–Kermadec Islands volcanic arc, a subduction zone extending from New Zealand north-northeast to Fiji.
• The Tonga-Kermadec arc was formed as a result of the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate.
• It has erupted regularly over the past few decades.

What is a Stratovolcano?

• It is a tall, steep, and cone-shaped type of volcano.
• Unlike flat shield volcanoes, they have higher peaks.
• They are typically found above subduction zones, and they are often part of large volcanically active regions, such as the Ring of Fire that frames much of the Pacific Ocean.
• Strato Volcanoes comprise the largest percentage (~60%) of the Earth’s individual volcanoes, and most are characterised by eruptions of andesite and dacite, lavas that are cooler and more viscous than basalt.
• These more viscous lavas allow gas pressures to build up to high levels. Therefore, these volcanoes often suffer explosive eruptions.
• They are usually about half-half lava and pyroclastic material, and the layering of these products gives them their other common name, composite volcanoes.
• At their peak, they usually have a small The crater may be filled with water or ice, or it may contain a volcanic dome during a period of relative inactivity.

MCQs

1.  Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct about the ‘e-Waste Management Rules’ in India?

1. The rules have been framed by the central government in the exercise of the powers provided under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. The rules aims at the recovery and/or reuse of useful material from e-waste to reduce the hazardous wastes destined for disposal.
3. The manufacturers, dealers, e-retailers, refurbishes and consumers have been brought under he ambit of these rules to ensure that the e-waste is effectively channelised and disposed of.
4. The Central Pollution Control Board has been entrusted with the responsibility to administer the extended producer responsibility provisions.

Select the correct codes from below –

1. 1, 2 and 3 only
2. 2, 3 and 4 only
3. 1, 2 and 4 only
4. All of the above

Answer – C

Explanation – Looking to growing problems of e-waste, the Central Government in the exercise of the powers provided under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 had notified e-waste management rules in 2016. These rules superseded the E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011. The rules aims to enables the recovery and/or reuse of useful material from e- waste, thereby reducing the hazardous wastes destined for disposal and to ensure the environmentally sound management of all types of waste of electrical and electronic equipment. For the first time, the rules brought the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), along with targets. Producers have been made responsible for the collection of E-waste and for its exchange. The manufacturers, dealers, e-retailers, and refurbishers have been brought under the ambit of these rules to ensure that the e-waste is effectively channelized and disposed of. The urban local bodies have been assigned the responsibility of collecting back the e- waste arising from the orphan products and channelising it to authorised dismantler or recycler. The EWM Rules, 2016, have prescribed strict criteria for achieving effective collection, transportation, storage, channelisation, and disposal of the e-waste in an environmentally sound manner. Provisions of penalty for violation of rules have also been introduced.

Amendment to EWM Rules, 2016 –

• In 2018, the EWM Rules were further
• The new E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules, 2018 has the provision of introduction of  Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO)
• PROs are now required to register with CPCB under the new rules.
• PROs will also have to prove that all collection is legitimate and share proofs for such collection.
• Earlier, PROs were not able to procure waste from private and government Institutions.
• The Rules address this lack of acknowledgement of legitimate PROs by asking them to register with CPCB.

2.  Consider the following statements regarding the Carlsberg Ridge –

1. It is a divergent plate boundary located in the Indian Ocean.
2. It marks the boundary between the Somali Plate and the Indian Plate.
3. It extends northwest from a triple junction to the Gulf of Aden.
4. It is the most prominent mid-ocean ridge segment of the eastern Indian Ocean.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

1. 1 and 2 only
2. 1, 2 and 3 only
3. 2, 3 and 4 only
4. All of the above

Answer – B

Explanation – It is a mid-oceanic ridge (a divergent plate boundary) located in the Indian Ocean. The ridge extends from the triple junction of the African, Indian, and Australian tectonic plates (where it connects to the Mid-Indian Ridge) northwest to the Gulf of Aden. The ridge separates the Arabian Sea to the northeast from the Somali Basin to the southwest. It marks the boundary between the Somali Plate and the Indian Plate. The mean depth of the Carlsberg Ridge is between some 6,000 and 12,000 feet (1,800 and 3,600 meters) below the sea surface, and it rises to a mean elevation of about 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) above the seafloor. The ridge turns westward around the island of Socotra and eventually connects with the East African Rift System by way of the Gulf of Aden. It is the most prominent mid-ocean ridge segment of the western Indian Ocean, which contains a number of earthquake epicenters.

3.    Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct about the ‘International Seabed Authority’?

1. It was established in the year 1974 by the UNCLOS as an autonomous intergovernmental body having observer status at the UN.
2. Its headquarter is located in London.
3. India is the first country to have received the status of a pioneer investor in 1987 to explore Central Indian Ocean Basin for exploration and utilisation of nodules.

Select the correct codes from below –

1. 1 and 2 only
2. 2 and 3 only
3. 1 and 3 only
4. None of the above

Answer – C

Explanation – It was established in 1994 by UNCLOS (UN Convention on Laws of Sea) with its headquarter at Kingston, Jamaica. It is an autonomous intergovernmental body having observer status at the UN. Its task is to organise, regulate and control all mineral-related activities in the international Seabed Area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. There are 167 members and the European Union of the ISA. India is the first country to have received the status of a pioneer investor in 1987 and was allocated an exclusive area in Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) by UN for exploration and utilisation of nodules.

4.  Consider the following statements regarding the standard of proof in legal proceedings –

1. The standard of “preponderance of probability” requires the evidence to be conclusive and eliminate all doubts.
2. In civil cases, a fact is considered proven if the court believes it is more likely to exist than not.
3. The standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt” is a lower threshold of proof than “preponderance of probability.”

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. 2 and 3 only
4. All of the above

Answer – B

Explanation – Preponderance of Probability is a widely accepted standard of proof in civil proceedings. The preponderance of probability refers to the greater likelihood of one event or fact over another. In this context, a fact is considered proven when the evidence suggests that the occurrence of the fact is more likely than not. It is not about certainty or eliminating all doubts but rather about weighing evidence to see which side presents a more probable scenario. In civil cases, the party bearing the burden of proof needs to show that their version of events is more plausible than the opposing party’s. This standard contrasts sharply with the criminal law standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt,” where the prosecution must prove the defendant’s guilt to a much higher level of certainty. In civil cases, by contrast, the balance of probabilities leans toward the more convincing narrative. In Narayan Ganesh Dastane v. Sucheta Narayan Dastane (1975), the Supreme Court of India stated that under Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act, a fact is said to be proved when the court believes in its existence based on a “preponderance of probability.” The court applies this test by evaluating conflicting probabilities and choosing the most probable Application of Preponderance of Probability in Civil Law — The preponderance of probability is the standard of proof used in most civil litigation. Civil cases typically involve disputes over rights, contracts, property, or torts, and the plaintiff must demonstrate that their claim is more likely true than false. For example, in a breach of contract case, the plaintiff must show that it is more likely than not that the contract was breached.

5.   Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct about the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)?

1. It was set up in 2008 after the Mumbai terrorist attacks to map the crime in India.
2. It is based on the recommendation of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2005).

Select the correct codes from below –

1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer – D

Explanation – NCRB was set-up in 1986 to function as a repository of information on crime and criminals so as to assist the investigators in linking crime to the perpetrators, based on the recommendations of the National Police Commission (1977-1981) and the MHA’s Task force (1985).

Source – The Hindu 

Also read Daily Current Affairs – 30 September 2025